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P. A. Munch (1863)
By Bjørnstjerne Martinius Bjørnson
(See Note 20)
Many forms belong to greatness.
He who now has left us bore it
As a doubt that made him sleepless,
But at last gave revelation, -
As a sight-enhancing power,
That gave visions joined with anguish
Over all beyond our seeing, -
As a flight on labor's pinions
From the thought unto the certain,
Thence aloft to intuition, -
Restless haste and changeful ardor,
God-inspired and unceasing,
Through the wide world ever storming,
Took its load of thoughts and doubtings,
Bore them, threw them off, - and took them,
Never tired, never listless.
Still! for he had one haven of rest:
Family-life peace-bestowing!
Powers of light gave repose to his breast,
Calm 'mid the strife of his knowing.
Softly with music his wife led him in
Unto the sweet-smelling birches!
Unto the flowers and still deeper in
Under the fir-forest's churches!
Daughters drew near him in love secure
Cooling his forehead's hot fever;
Gently their message of innocence pure
Made him a childlike believer.
Or he joined glad in their light-hearted game,
Colors and music surrounding, -
Gone were the clouds, in the heavens came
Sparkling of star-light abounding.
But as in an autumn evening
Silent, dreamy, dark, sheet-lightning
Wakens thought and feeling stormward, -
Or as in a boat a sudden
Stroke when gliding as in slumber
On between the cliffs that tower
In a quiet, balmy spring night, -
But a single stroke and soft, then
Echo takes it up and tosses
To and fro 'mid walls of mountains,
Thrush and grouse send forth their wood-calls
Deer rise up and listen keenly,
Stones are rolling, all are up now,
Dogs are barking, bells are clanging,
Ushering in the strife of daytime, -
Thus could oft a recollection
Down-light falling in that playtime,
Waken all his thought and doubting!
Then it roved the wide world over,
Then it hottest burned within him, -
But it lavished light for others!
Rise of races, spread of language,
Birth of names, all laws' close kinship,
Small and great in equal passion,
Equal haste and doubting goal-ward! -
There where others stones saw only,
He saw precious gems that glistened,
Sunk his shaft the mine to deepen.
And where others thought the treasure
Sure and safe for years a hundred,
Doubt possessed him as he burrowed
Day and night - and saw it vanish!
But the unrest that gave power
Made him oft the goal pass over;
While to others he gave clearness,
Intuitions new deceived him.
Therefore: where he once had striven,
Thither he would turn him never,
Changed his ground and shifted labor,
From his own thought-conquests fleeing.
But his thoughts pursued, untiring,
Followed, growing, as the fire,
Kindled in Brazilian forests,
Storm-wind makes and storm-wind follows!
Where before no foot had trodden,
Ways were burned for many millions!
Northward stretches Scandinavia
'Mid the fog that dims the Ice-sea,
Darkness of the months of winter
Lays its weight on sea and mountain.
Like our lands are too our peoples.
Their beginnings prehistoric
Stretch afar in fog and darkness.
But as through the fog a lighthouse,
Or as Northern Lights o'er darkness,
Gleamed his thought with light and guidance.
When with filial fond remembrance
Tenderly he sought and questioned,
Searching for his people's pathways -
Names and graves and rusty weapons,
Stones and tools their answer gave him.
Through primeval Asian forests,
Over steppes and sands of deserts,
'Neath a thousand years that moldered,
Saw he caravan-made footsteps
Seek a new home in the Northland.
And as they the rivers followed,
Followed them his thought abundant,
Into Nature's All full-flowing. -
See his restless soul's creation!
Harmony of truth he yearned for,
Found it not, but wonder-working
New discoveries and pathways,
- Like those alchemists aforetime
Who, though gold was all their seeking,
Found not that, but mighty forces,
Which to-day the world are moving. -
***
Deepest ground of all his being
Was the polar power of contrast,
For his thought, to music wakened
By the touch of Northern Saga,
Vibrated melodious longing,
Toward the South forever tending.
In his eye the lambent fire,
Of his thought the glint, showed kinship
With the free improvisator
In the land of warmth and vineyards.
And his swiftly changing feeling
And his all-consuming ardor,
That could toil the livelong winter
Till caprice the fruit discarded, -
That immeasurable richness
Wherein thoughts and moods and music,
Joy and sorrow, jest and earnest,
Gleamed and played without cessation, -
All a Southern day resembled!
Therefore was his life a journey,
Towards the South in constant movement, -
Through the mists of intuition,
From the darker to the brighter,
From the colder to the warmer, -
On the bridge of ceaseless labor
Bearing over sea and mountain!
Oh, the time with wife beside him
And his bonny playmate-sisters
(Gladsome children, winsome daughters),
When he stood, where evening sunshine
Glowed on Capitol and Forum, -
Stood where from the great world-city,
As from history's very fountain,
Knowledge wells in streams of fullness; -
Where a clearness large and cloudless
Falls upon the bygone ages
That have laid them down to rest here; -
Where to him, the Northern searcher,
It would seem, he had been straying
Too long lost in history's fogland,
Rowing round the deep fjords' surface; -
Stood where dead men burst the earth-clods
And themselves come forth for witness
In their heavy marble togas; -
Where the goddesses of Delos
In the frescoed halls are dancing,
As two thousand years before now; -
Pantheon and Coliseum
In their spacious fate have sheltered
All the world's swift evolution; -
Where a Hermes from that corner
Saw the footsteps firm of Cato,
Pontifex in the procession, -
Saw then Nero as Apollo
Lifted up take sacrifices,
Saw then Gregory, the wrathful,
Riding forth to rule in spirit
Over all the known world's kingdoms, -
Saw then Cola di Rienzi
Homage pay to freedom's goddess
'Mid the Roman people's paeans, -
Saw Pope Leo and his princes
Choose instead of the Lord Jesus
Aristotle dead and Plato;-
Saw again how stouter epochs
Raised the Church of Papal power,
Till the Frenchman overthrew it
And exalted Nature's Godhead;
Saw anew then wonted custom
In its pious, still processions
With a Lamb the great world's ruler! -
All this saw the little Hermes
On the corner near the temple,
And the wise man from the Northland
Saw that Hermes and his visions.
Yes, when over Rome he stood there
In that high, historic clearness,
And his eye the mountain-ridges
Followed toward the red of evening, -
Then all beams of longing focused
In a blessed intuition,
And - he saw a church before him
Greater far than that of nature,
And he felt a peace descending,
Larger far than all the present.
When the second time he came there,
After days and nights of labor,
Hard as were it for redemption, -
Then the Lord Himself gave welcome,
Led him gently thither, saying:
"Peace be with thee! Thou hast conquered!"
But to us with sorrow stricken
Turned the Lord with comfort, saying:
"When I call, who then dares murmur,
That the called man had not finished?"
Whoso dies, he here had finished!
Spite our sorrow we believe it,
Hold that He, who unrest giveth
(The discoverer's disquiet,
That drove Newton, drove Columbus),
Also knows when rest is needed.
But we question, while reviewing
All that mighty thought-armada
Now disbanded, home-returning:
Who again shall reunite it?
For when he cut his war-arrow,
Lords and liegemen soon were mustered,
And to aid from Sweden, Denmark,
England, France, swift-flying vessels
Coursed the sea-ways toward his standard.
Royal was that fleet and mighty,
By our shore at anchor lying;
We were wont to see it near us
Or to hear the wondrous tidings
Of its cruises and its conquests.
What it won we own forever;
But the fleet is sailing homeward.
Here we stand the last sail watching
As it sinks on the horizon.
Then we turn and breathe the question:
Who again shall reunite it?
Extra Info:
TRANSLATED FROM THE NORWEGIAN IN THE ORIGINAL METERS BY ARTHUR HUBBELL PALMER
Professor of the German Language and Literature In Yale University
Note 2.
VENEVIL. Midsummer Day=sanktehans=Saint John's (Feast), on June 24, next to Christmas the chief popular festival in Norway; the time when nature and human life have fullest light and power.
Note 3.
OVER THE LOFTY MOUNTAINS. "Really Björnson's first patriotic song. ... Describes one of the main motive forces in all the history of the Norwegian people, the inner impulse to expansion and the adventurous longing for what is great and distant. ... Written in the narrow, hemmed-in Eikis valley." (Collin, ii, 308, 309)
Note 4.
OUR COUNTRY. Written for the celebration of the Seventeenth of May in Bergen in the year 1859. This is Norway's Constitution Day, corresponding to our Fourth of July, the anniversary of the day in 1814 when at Eidsvold (see Note 5) a representative convention declared the country's independence and adopted a Constitution. The celebration day was instituted as a result of King Karl Johan's proposals for changes in the Constitution during the years 1821 to 1824, especially in favor of an absolute veto. It was taken up in Christiania in 1824, and spread rapidly to all the cities in the land, was opposed by the King and omitted in 1828, taken up by the students of the University in 1829, and soon after 1830 made by Henrik Wergeland (see Note 78) the chief of Norwegian patriotic festivals. In 1870 Björnson conceived and put into practice the "barnetog" or children's procession on this day, when the children march also, each carrying a flag. Bauta, prehistoric, uncut, narrow, tall, memorial stone, from the bronze age.
Hows, burial mounds, barrows.
Note 5.
SONG FOR NORWAY. Written in the summer of 1859 in connection with the tale Arne, but not included in that book. The people of Norway have adopted this poem as their national hymn, because it is vigorous, picturesque summary of the glorious history of the country in whose every line patriotic love vibrates.
Stanza 2. Harald Fairhair (860-933) was the first to unite all Norway in one kingdom as a sort of feudal state. His success in his struggles with the petty kings who opposed him was made complete by his victory over viking forces in the battle on the waters of Hafursfjord, 872. Many of the rebels emigrated, a movement which led to the settlement of Iceland front 874 on. Haakon the Good (935- 961) was the youngest son of Harald Fairhair, born in the latter's old age. He was reared in England with King Ethelstane, who had him taught Christianity and baptized. When he was well settled on the throne in Norway, he tried to introduce Christianity, but without success. He improved the laws and organized the war forces of the land.
Eyvind Finnsson, uncle of Haakon, was a great skald, who sang his deeds and Norway's sorrow over his death.
Olaf the Saint (1015-1030) was a man of force and daring, as shown by his going on viking expeditions when only twelve years old. He became a Christian in Normandy. Returning to Norway in 1015, he established himself as King and spread his authority as a stern ruler. With more or less violence he Christianized the whole land. This and his sternness led to an uprising, which was supported by the Danish King, Knut the Great. Olaf died a hero's death in the battle of Stiklestad, and not long after became Norway's patron saint, to whose grave pilgrimages were made from all the North. His son, Magnus the Good, (see Note 6), was chosen King in 1035.
Sverre (1182-1202) was a man of unusual physical and mental powers,calm and dignified, and wonderfully eloquent. Yet he was a war king, and the civil conflicts of his time were a misfortune for Norway, although he bravely defended the royal prerogatives and the land against the usurpation of temporal power by the Church of Rome, and put an end to ecclesiastical rule in Norway.
Stanza 3. About five centuries of less renown for Norway are passed over, and this and the following stanza refer to the time of the Great Northern War, 1700-21, and the danger arising from Charles XII of Sweden. From 1319 to 1523 Norway was in union with Denmark and Sweden; from 1523 with Denmark only. In this war, waged by Denmark- Norway, Russia, and Saxony-Poland against Charles XII, in order to lessen the might which Sweden had gained by the Thirty Years' War, Norwegian peasants, men and women, took up arms against the Swedes.
Peasant is in this volume the usual rendering of the word "bonde" in the original; for its fuller significance see Note 78.
Tordenskjold, Peter (1691-1720), a great Norwegian naval hero, whose original name was Wessel, and who was born in Trondhjem. He received the name Tordenskjold when he was ennobled. By his remarkable achievements he contributed much to the favorable issue of the Great Northern War; he often had occasion to ravage the coast of Sweden and to protect that of Norway.
Stanza 4. Fredrikshald. Here, on September 11, 1718, Charles XII met his death on his second invasion of Norway. The citizens had earlier burned the City, so that it might not afford shelter to the Swedes against the cannon of the fortress Fredriksten.
Stanzas 5 and 6. Again a rather long period of peace is passed over. In 1807 Denmark was induced by Napoleon to join the continental system. England bombarded Copenhagen and captured it and the Danish fleet. The war lasted seven years for Norway also, which was blockaded by the English fleet and suffered sorely for lack of the necessaries of life. But the nations sense of independence grew, and when the Peace of Kiel in January, 1814, separated Norway from Denmark, Norway refused to be absorbed by Sweden, and through a representative assembly at Eidsvold declared its independence, adopted a Constitution on May 17, 1814, and chose as King, Prince Christian Frederik, the later King Christian VIII of Denmark. The Swedish Crown Prince Karl Johan led an invasion of Norway in July, and there was fighting until the Convention of Moss, August 14, in which he approved the Norwegian Constitution in return for the abdication of Christian Frederik. Negotiations then led to the federation of Norway as an independent kingdom with Sweden in a union. This was formally concluded on November 4, 1815, by the adoption of the Act of Union, and the election of the Swedish King Karl XIII as King of Norway.
The last four lines of stanza 6 refer to "Scandinavism," i.e., a movement beginning some time before 1848 to bring about a close federation or alliance of the three Northern kingdoms (see Note 21).
Note 6.
ANSWER FROM NORWAY. First printed in a newspaper, April 7, 1860,
with the title "Song for the Common People," this poem refers to a
stage of the long conflict over the question of a viceroy in Norway,
so important in the history of the union of Sweden and Norway. The
Norwegian Constitution gave to the King power to send a viceroy to
reside in Norway, and to name as such either a Swede or a Norwegian.
Until about 1830 the viceroy had always been a Swede, thereafter
always a Norwegian. On December 9, 1859, the Norwegian Storting
voted to abolish this article in a proposed revision of the
Constitution. The matter was discussed in Sweden with vehemence and
passion. The storm of feeling raged most violently in March, 1860,
when on the 17th, in Stockholm, this revision was rejected.
However, no viceroy was appointed alter 1859, and in 1873 the
question was amicably settled as Norwegians desired.
While the situation was tense, an unfounded rumor had spread, that
on one occasion the Norwegian flag had been raised over the
residence of the Swedish-Norwegian Minister in Vienna. This caused
loud complaints in Sweden, that "the Norwegian colors had displaced
the Swedish," while in the House of Nobles a member declared that
Norway ought to be "an accessory" to Sweden; that "young,
inexperienced" Norway's demand of equality with Sweden was like a
commoner's importunity for equality with a nobleman. He went on to
say that the Swedish nation must crave again its (pure) flag: "For
in our ancient blue-yellow Swedish flag, that waved over Lützen's
blood-drenched battlefield, are our honor, our memories, and
thousand-fold deaths."
The (pure, i.e., without the mark of union) Swedish flag consists
of a yellow cross on a blue ground, the (pure) Norwegian flag of a
blue cross within a white border on a red ground; in each the cross
extends to the four margins. At the date of this poem each flag
showed a mark of union, a diagonal combination of the colors of
both, in the upper field nearest the staff. (For a brief history of
the flag of Norway, see Note 66.)
Stanza 2. Magnus the Good, son of Olaf the Saint, reigned from 1035
till his death in 1047. He was victorious in conflict with the
Danish King Knut the Hard, and by agreement received Denmark after
his death. Magnus died in Denmark on one of several successful
expeditions against the rebellious Svein Jarl.
Fredrikshald, see Note 5.
Ad(e)ler, Kort Sivertsen (1622-1675), was a distinguished admiral,
born in Norway. He reorganized the Danish-Norwegian fleet, which
late in the seventeenth century several times defeated the Swedish.
Stanza 3. Lützen. In the battle of Lützen, November 16, 1632,
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was killed.
Grandsire's ancient seat, symbol of Norway's ancient power and
glory. In one of the Swedish speeches were these words: "If Norway
had had a Gustavus Adolphus, a Torstenson, a Charles the Twelfth, if
its name like ours had gone forth victorious in history, no Swede
would deny its right to stand before us. This, however, is not the
case. ..."
Stanza 4. Sverre Priest, see Note 5. When young he was a priest.
Stanzas 5 and 6. Christie, Y. F. K. (1779-1849), was a vice-
president of the convention of Eidsvold, April 10-May 20, 1814, and
president of the first extraordinary Storting after the convention
of Moss, August, 1814. To him more than any other man was due the
securing of Norway's independence and welfare in the framing and
adoption of the Constitution and the Act of Union. In a sense he
was the real founder of Norway's liberty (see Note 5).
Stanza 7. Wessel=Tordenskjold, see Note 5.
Stanza 8. Torgny. At the Ting in Upsala, February, 1018, when the
Swedish King Olaf refused peace and his daughter's hand to the
Norwegian King, Olaf the Saint, the aged and revered peasant lawman,
Torgny, the wisest and most influential man in the land, rebuked the
King, declaring that the peasants wished peace with Norway, and
concluding thus: "If you will not do what we say, we shall attack
and kill you and not suffer from you breach of peace and law." The
King yielded, and made a promise which he afterwards broke.
Note 7.
JOHAN LUDVIG HEIBERG (December 14, 1791-August 25, 1860), the
leading Danish dramatist and critic of his time, an esthetic genius,
with, however, the stamp of the man of the world always on his life
and works. He early studied mathematics and natural science,
medicine and philology, Danish and foreign literature, and was also
very musical. He was uncertain whether to become a poet and esthetic
critic, a physician, or a natural scientist, or a surveyor, or - a
diplomat. From about 1824 he studied and adopted the Hegelian
philosophy, on which based his esthetics, and for which he was the
first spokesman in Denmark. In the years 1825 to 1836 he founded the
Danish vaudeville, in which his aim was to recreate the national
drama. His vaudeville was a lighter musical-dramatic genre,
a situation-play with loosely-sketched characters and the addition
of music to concentrate the mood. In it he sought a union with the
national comedy, and like Holberg to treat subjects from his own age
and land. From 1830 to 1836 Heiberg was professor of logic,
esthetics, and Danish literature in the Military School. From 1839
on, censor of the Royal Theater, of which he was director from 1849
to 1856, without great success because of circumstances beyond his
control. In the year 1840 he began to deeply interested in the study
of acoustics, optics, and astronomy, and soon fitted up a small
astronomical observatory at his residence; he published an
astronomical manual, 1844-46. In 1831 Heiberg married Johanne Louise
Pätges (1812-1890). The daughter of poor parents, she became a pupil
of the dancing-school of the Royal Theater in 1820, but went over to
the drama in 1826. Wonderfully gifted, she developed rapidly and
became Denmark's greatest actress. Her last appearance on the
stage was in 1864. She favored the performance of Björnson's and
Ibsen's earlier dramas on the stage in Copenhagen, with management
of which she had official connection from 1867 to 1874.
"New Year" ringing o'er the Northland. Shortly before Christmas,
1816, Heiberg published his polemical romantic comedy Yule Jests and
New Year's Jokes, a brilliant revelation of his superiority as a wit
and a satirist. Attacking the excessive sentimentality of Danish
literature and taste at that time, it made a sensation and led to
the improvement of both.
Note 8.
THE OCEAN. Arnljot Gelline, a man of prowess, from Tiundaland, the
Region about Upsala. When Olaf the Saint went from Sweden to Norway
in 1030, Arnljot Gelline was present in his army at Stiklestad, and
after baptism was assigned to a place nearest in front of the royal
standard. He fought stoutly, but fell early in the battle.
Vikar, a brother of Arnljot Gelline, who sailed with Olaf
Trygvason on the Long Serpent, and died fighting in his post of
honor on the prow. (See notes below.)
Note 9.
ALONE AND REPENTANT. This poem was first printed in 1865, but was
probably written in 1861 or 1862 in Germany or Italy. The friend
was Ivar Bye, whom Björnson had saved from distress and social
ostracism in Christiania before 1857, when Bye went as an actor with
Björnson to the theater in Bergen. He was no great actor but an
unusual man, for whom Björnson had deep respect and warm sympathy.
Björnson described his character and life-experience in the study
"Ivar Bye," first published in 1894, in which he said: "Our
literature possesses a memorial of his way of receiving what was
confided to him. It lies in the poem: 'A friend I possess.' I
wrote it far away from him, - not that he might have it, his name is
not mentioned, and he never had it, but because at that time things
were hard for me."
Note 10.
OLAF TRYGVASON. Grandson of Harald Fairhair, and King from 995 to
1000. On one of his viking expeditions to England he was converted
to Christianity. Returning to Norway to win back his ancestral
inheritance from Haakon Jarl (see Note 14), he had fortune with
him; for as he steered into the Trondhjem Fjord, he received the
tidings of the successful uprising of the peasants against Haakon.
He founded Nidaros, the present city of Trondhjem, established
Christianity in a large part of the country, and soon became dearer
to the people than any other Norwegian King. But he had powerful
enemies outside of the land: the Danish King, Svein Forkbeard,
the Swedish King, Olaf, and Erik, son of Haakon Jarl. By a large
sea-force under these he was attacked off the island Svolder (near
the island of Ringen), and there lost his life. Erling Skjalgsson,
a great chieftain, holding large fiefs from Olaf and married to his
sister, lived at Sole in southwestern Norway. With a large number of
the smaller ships of Olaf Trygvason he had been allowed to sail away
in advance and did not know of the battle at Svolder.
Long Serpent was the name of the large fighting ship that Olaf had
built for this expedition. It held six hundred men.
Note 11.
BERGLIOT. Einar Tambarskelve was one of the most powerful men in
Norway during the first half of the eleventh century. His mastery of
the bow gave him the epithet Tambarskelve, "bow-string-shaker." He
fought, when eighteen years old, on the Long Serpent at Svolder.
After Erik and Svein were established in power as a result of that
battle, Einar became reconciled and married their sister Bergliot.
In 1023 he went to King Knut the Great in England, who was also King
of Denmark, and urged him to conquer Norway. Knut did so in 1028 and
made his son Svein King of Norway. Einar opposed this, and Magnus
the Good (see Note 6) was called to rule, whose most faithful
vassal Einar became. He followed King Magnus and his co-regent
Harold Hardruler to Denmark, where Magnus died. Here and in Norway
Einar, as the champion of all that was good, opposed many of the
illegal and unrighteous deeds and plans of Harald, and incurred the
latter's bitter enmity. In the year 1055, under the pretext of
reconciliation, Harold lured Einar with his wife and son Eindride
(pronounced as three syllables) to Nidaros (Trondhjem), where
the murder was committed within the hall of the royal residence, as
related in the poem.
Haakon Ivarson was a man of force and influence.
Harald Hardruler was a half brother of Olaf the Saint. Late in the
reign of Magnus the Good, after adventurous wanderings in Russia and
the Orient, he returned to Norway and demanded a share in the
kingdom. By agreement they divided the royal power and their
wealth. Before his death Magnus determined that Harald should be
King of Norway, but Svein Estridson King of Denmark. Harald,
however, tried unsuccessfully to conquer Denmark. He died in
England, being slain at the battle of Stanford Bridge in 1066. His
harshness as King secured him his epithet. The murder of Einar
brought him much hate.
Ting-peace. The spelling "ting" is adopted in place of "thing."
Peasants, for this word see Note 78.
Gimle, the heaven of the new Christian faith.
Heath of Lyrskog, in Jutland. Magnus the Good, at the time also
King of Denmark, won a decisive victory here in 1043 over a much
larger invading army of Wends. (See also Note 23.)
Trönder, one from the region about Trondhjem.
Haakon from Hjörungavaag. Haakon Jarl (970-995) was the last
pagan King in Norway. His defeat in 986 of the Jomsborg vikings,
allies of King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark, in a naval engagement at
Hjörungavaag, a bay in western Norway, was the greatest naval battle
ever fought in that country.
Valhall, the hall where those slain in battle dwell after death.
Note 12.
TO MY WIFE. Written in Rome in 1861 or 1862, first printed in 1865.
Björnson's wife was Karoline Reimers, born December 1, 1835. They
were married on September 11, 1858; she is still living (June,
1915). At the celebration of their golden wedding Björnson
addressed touching words of gratitude to her, saying at the close:
"I know that you will live longer than I. It will be your lot to
cover the sheet over me. There is much in a man that needs to be
covered over. Of our life, Karoline, you shall have the honor. See
also the poem Those with Me, and notes thereto.
Note 13.
IN A HEAVY HOUR. Written in Italy rather late in 1861, after
Björnson received tidings of the sharp criticism of his drama King
Sverre and of its lack of success on the stage in Christiania, where
it was first performed on October 9. In a letter from Hans
Christian Andersen Björnson wrote on December 10, 1861: "At a time
when I was in a mood to write the following verses, which perhaps
tell so much that I need not tell more [the poem is quoted], - at a
time when I, the man, nay, the product of friendship, was in a mood
to write this, it came just like a Christmas hymn among strangers,
to hear that you had dedicated to me your last four Tales. You ...,
you had a heart to remember me, when many friends from tested times
did not."
Note 14.
KAARE'S SONG. Helga was the daughter of Maddad, a prominent and
wealthy man at Katanes. She came to Orkney, where the ruler, Haakon
Earl, fell in love with her and made her his mistress. She bore him
a son, Harald, and lived at Orkney sixteen years in spite of the
hate and disdain showed her by so many, especially by the Earl's
lawful wife. She and her sister Frakark exerted an evil influence
over Haakon Earl, inciting him among other things to murder his co-
ruler and kinsman Magnus Erlendson. It was believed that Haakon
Earl became crazy when he first saw Helga. This song, which Kaare,
one of the Earl's men, sings, describes this first meeting and was
commonly sung by Helga's enemies.
Note 15.
IVAR INGEMUNDSON'S LAY. In the first half of the twelfth century an
Icelandic skald of this name lived and sang at the court of King
Eystein in Norway. He loved a young Icelandic girl, but had not
declared his love. When his brother was going home to Iceland, Ivar
asked him to tell her of his love and beg her to wait for him. But
on his later coming to Iceland, she met him as that brother's wife.
Ivar returned Norway and was thereafter always melancholy and
thoughtful. When Harald Gille became King, Ivar lived at his court,
but sympathized warmly with the able and bold Sigurd Slembe, who
claimed to be Magnus Barefoot's son and Harald Gille's half-brother.
After many years of hardship Sigurd came to Harald Gille and asked
him to recognize him. Harald was a good-natured, but weak and
ignorant man, entirely controlled by his chieftains, who persuaded
him to have Sigurd imprisoned, with the intention of killing him.
Sigurd, however, escaped and fled.
Note 16.
MAGNUS THE BLIND. Magnus was born in 1115, and became King in 1130.
He had Harald Gille as co-regent. Their agreement was that Harald
could not demand a larger share in the kingdom as long as Magnus
lived. But Magnus made himself hated by his own deeds, and in 1131
a breach resulted between the Kings. The chieftains were on Harald's
side. He seized Magnus in 1135, had him blinded and castrated, and
sent him into the monastery at Nidarholm. Sigurd Slembe, who made
war on Harald and conquered him, freed Magnus from the monastery
and caused him to fight in his army. He died in the sea-battle of
Holmengraa.
Note 17.
SIN, DEATH. Written during the latter half of 1862 in Munich, and
possibly, according to an oral statement of Björnson's, under
impressions received from German ecclesiastical art: "It is only
natural that in Munich symbolical poems should present themselves."
Note 18.
FRIDA. This poem was first printed March 24, 1863, soon after the
death, at the age of twenty-two, of her whom it commemorates. She
was a younger sister of the leading Danish literary critic, Clemens
Petersen, born 1834. He became Björnson's friend in 1856 and aided
greatly in opening the way for him in Denmark. Until 1868 Petersen
had much influence on public opinion. Soon after that he came to
America, and did not return to Copenhagen until 1904. He was a
follower of Heiberg, but more liberal.
Note 19.
BERGEN. Written in 1863 for a musical festival in which Björnson and
Ibsen took part. Bergen's unusually favorable situation made it for
a long time Norway's first city in commerce; it has only recently
fallen behind Christiania. It has ever had a large local fleet and
great traffic in its harbor. Founded about 1070 by King Olaf the
Quiet, Bergen was very important in the older history of the land,
as the residence of the Kings, until about 1350, when Hanseatic
control began, continuing until late in the sixteenth century. In
the seventeenth century Bergen was incomparably the first commercial
city in the Danish-Norwegian monarchy; in the eighteenth it was
surpassed by Copenhagen. The people of Bergen have always been
distinctly liberal in thought and feeling.
Holberg, Ludvig (1684-1754), was born in Bergen, but resided in
most of his life in Denmark. His comedies, which founded modern
Danish-Norwegian literature, are indeed immortal.
Dahl, John Christian Clausen (1788-1857), a Norwegian landscape
painter, who, though born in Bergen, went in 1811 to Copenhagen and
from 1818 resided in Dresden. As subjects he preferred water, rock,
and strand, and showed a realistic tendency in his light-effects.
Welhaven, see Note 36.
Ole Bull (1810-1880), a violinist of world-wide renown. In his
later life he passed most of his time in the United States, but
every year he returned to the home which he maintained near Bergen,
at a distance of about two hours by steamer. Carrying out a plan
conceived in 1848, he established in Bergen with his own means the
first Norwegian National Theater, which was opened January 2, 1850.
Collin says that the last line of the poem sums up Björnson's view
of Norway's historical memories as motive power for new achievement.
This seems realized in Bergen's recent development, - it now had the
largest steam-fleet of all the cities in Norway.
Note 20.
P. A. MUNCH. Peter Andreas Munch (born in Christiania, December 15,
1810; died in Rome, May 25, 1863) became professor of history in
1841 and Keeper of the Archives in 1861. He was not only one of the
greatest historians of Norway, but also a philologist, an
ethnographer, an archaeologist, a geographer, and a publicist. His
chief field was the prehistoric age and the medieval period.
He traveled much in the Scandinavian lands and elsewhere in Europe,
made several long stays in Rome, and was buried there. His main and
best known work is the History of the Norwegian People, in eight
large volumes, published from 1851 to 1863. This and his other
writings greatly strengthened the national self-consciousness and
sense of independence. Munch had a phenomenal memory, marked talent
for music and drawing, playful humor, incredible capacity for work,
rare intuition for epoch-making discoveries. In a speech in 1892
Björnson placed Munch by the side of Wergeland (see Note 78) as a
fosterer of national self-consciousness and faith in the future: "We
can remember when we were young, how P. A. Munch's History came out
in parts, and how he fought with the Danish professors, to get
Norway brought home again from Danish captivity in history also,
- we can remember how eventful it was for us, and how it had its
share in molding us. ... He had his large share in what our
generation has done. I put his work in this way by the side of
Wergeland's."
Through provincial Asian forests, etc. These lines refer to the
so-called "immigration-theory" advanced by Rudolf Keyser and
elaborated by Munch, which maintained that the remote ancestors of
the Swedes and the Norwegians migrated from the northeast into the
Scandinavian peninsula about 300 B.C.: the Swedes from Finland and
the Northmen through Lapland. These scholars also held that Old
Norse literature, as being the product of Norway and Iceland, was
distinctly Norse, and not "Northern" or joint-Scandinavian.
When I call, paraphrase of Isaiah xlviii, 13
Who again shall reunite fit? Munch left no peer in international
reputation. Coursed the sea-ways toward his standard. Not only was
Munch honored throughout Europe, but he was the first to secure for
Norwegian history its rightful place in European history.
Note 21.
KING FREDERIK THE SEVENTH. His death occurred November 15, 1863,
just before the crisis with Prussia and Austria. He was born
October 6, 1808, the son of Prince Christian Frederik, later King
Christian VIII of Denmark, and his first wife. The early divorce of
his parents resulted in his education being neglected; he was left
for several years in the hands of relatives and strangers; had
unsympathetic teachers and almost no trace of parental guidance.
All his life he had less than average attainments in knowledge,
except in a practical way in Scandinavian archaeology. He had
natural dignity, but a broad, undisciplined nature, and shunned
court etiquette and constraint. In 1834, he was in effect
banished to Jaegerspris, a royal estate near Frederikssund, and
later was sent on a cruise to Iceland. Afterwards he resided in
disfavor in Fredericia, where his tendencies to plain, direct
intercourse with people of all classes were further developed. When
Christian VIII ascended the throne, Frederik's position was somewhat
improved, and his free association with officials and commoners made
him very popular. It was found that he could show at times
surprisingly clear and sure insight into practical conditions. His
interest continued active in archaeological investigations, sea-
voyaging, and fishing. During the increasing national and political
difficulties Frederik, because of his pronounced Danish feeling and
sympathy with the common people, was disposed to take a stand more
national and constitutionally liberal than could please the
government circles. This became known among the people
and made him a still greater favorite. In 1847 he submitted a
proposal for the introduction of a joint Constitution for the entire
monarchy, but King Christian died before action could be taken.
Frederik VII ascended the throne January 20, 1848. The change of
ministry which he made in March as a result of the Schleswig revolt,
his opposition to the division of Schleswig, and his establishment
of really constitutional government made his popularity forever
secure, although he was not a sure and purposeful ruler. Frederik's
character played an important part in the relations of Denmark with
Sweden and Norway. The personal friendship between the two
Kings united the countries more closely and lifted political
"Scandinavism" to the height it reached shortly before the war of
1864 with Prussia and Austria over Schleswig-Holstein.
This "Scandinavism" is referred to in the poem by the words "to
the North," "his course," and similar expressions. It was the name
given to the sense of kinship of the three Northern peoples and the
desire of closer union, whether in spiritual or material or
political relations. It was evoked first by poets and scholars, and
gathered strength from 1843 on in meetings of university students.
In 1848 there was warm sympathy in both Sweden and Norway with the
cause of Denmark; the assistance of volunteers and even of Swedish-
Norwegian troops was given. Towards 1864 the three countries came
more closely together politically, promises of help to Denmark were
made by Sweden and Norway, and there was even talk of a treaty of
alliance. But the end of the war of 1864, and Germany's victory over
France in 1870-71, destroyed the hopes of political Scandinavism,
and thereafter it became rather cultural and practical, at least
until 1905, when Norway's full independence of Sweden led to
emphasis on individual nationality. The war of 1914-15 may bring
about a revival of political Scandinavism. (See also Note 38.)
Note 22.
TO SWEDEN. This poem and several following breathe the spirit of
Scandinavism described above.
Yellow-blue. The flag of Sweden shows a yellow cross on a blue
ground.
Christian Fourth, King of Denmark and Norway, 1588-1648.
Haakon Earl, see Note 14.
Palnatoki, the legendary leader of the Jomsborg vikings. Ancient
enemies are now allies, and so also Tordenskjold (see Note 5)
fights by the side of, not against, Charles XII.
Jenny=the famous singer, Jenny Lind, 1820-1887.
Lützen. Gustavus Adolphus prayed and his troops sang hymns before
the battle.
Narwa, where Charles XII, in November, 1700, was victorious over
the Russians under Peter the Great.
Note 23.
OUR FOREFATHERS. A festival, memorial poem, written just before the
outbreak of the Danish-German war. Danish troops were stationed
along the river Eider, which the Germans crossed on February 1,
1864. The last lines of the poem refer to what is told in the saga
of Magnus the Good about the battle of Lyrskog Heath (see Note 11):
"The night before the battle Magnus was wakeful and prayed to God
for victory. Towards morning he fell asleep and dreamed that his
father, King Olaf the Saint, came to him and said: 'You are now very
sick at heart and full of fear, because the Wends are coming against
you with a great army; but you must not be afraid of the heathen
host, though they be many together. I shall follow you into this
battle and join in the fight, when you hear my horn.' At dawn the
King wakened, and then all heard up in the air the ringing of
a bell, and those of the King's men who had been in Nidaros
[Trondhjem] recognized by its sound the bell which King Olaf had
given to the church of St. Clement. Then Magnus had the signal for
battle blown, and his men made such a furious onset on the Wends,
that fifteen thousand fell and the rest fled."
Note 24.
WHEN NORWAY WOULD NOT HELP. Written upon the adjournment of
the extraordinary meeting of the Norwegian Storting, called in
March, 1864. The action of the Storting providing for Norway's
participation with Denmark in the war coupled this with conditions
which made it equivalent to a refusal to help.
Wessel, see Note 5.
Dannebrog, see next note.
Note 25.
TO THE DANNEBROG. The original title was "The 19th of April, 1864."
Dybböl [Düppel]. This strongly fortified Danish place in
Schleswig was taken by the Germans on April 18, 1864.
Dannebrog, the traditional name of the Danish flag, consisting of
a red ground whereon is a broad white cross, extending to all four
margins. According to an old legend the original Dannebrog ("broge"
is an old Danish word, meaning a piece of colored cloth) soared down
from Heaven during the battle of Reval in 1219 and brought victory
to the Danes, while a voice was heard promising the Danes a complete
victory as often as they raised this banner against their enemies.
Note 26.
TOAST FOR THE MEN OF EIDSVOLD. First called "Toast for the 17th of
May;" written for the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the
Constitution (see Note 5).
Note 26.
THE NORRÖNA-RACE. Written for the fiftieth anniversary of the
adoption of the Act of Union with Sweden.
Norröna= Northern.
Surtr. According to Norse mythology there were in the beginning
two worlds, the first of which, called Muspell, was filled with
fire, light, and warmth; over this Surtr ruled, sitting with a sword
of flame at its border. The other world was Niflheim, cold and
dark.
Yggdrasil. The tree Yggdrasil is a symbol of the present world.
Dragons, warships with carved dragons as figure-heads.
Poland's night. For Gustavus Adolphus the Polish War, which he
waged before he took part actively in the Thirty Years' War in
Germany, was also undertaken for the defense of Protestantism.
Saga, here=History.
Note 27.
LECTOR THAASEN. Johan Edvard Thaasen (born in 1825; died February
17, 1865) was a classical philologist and a man of broad culture,
well versed in Old Norse and in modern French and German literature.
From 1852 he was teacher in the Cathedral School in Christiania, and
from 1860 lecturer in Greek at the University, where he treated
chiefly the Greek poets and archaeology. He came from a poor family
and passed his early life under hard conditions. During the last few
years he was sickly, and he died of consumption. In 1858 he was
president of the Students' Union, and spokesman for the Norwegians
at the Student Meeting in Copenhagen in 1862.
Note 28.
DURING A JOURNEY IN SWEDEN. Written in the summer of 1866,
Björnson's speeches then made a sensation by reason of the warmth
of his feeling for Sweden. Ellen Key has written with approval of
his characterization of the Swedes here, which agrees with that of
Schück in his History of Swedish Literature, i, 325, 326.
Note 29.
SONG FOR THE STUDENTS' GLEE CLUB. Written in 1863 for the journey
of the Club to Bergen (see Note 19).
Hald, Fredrikshald, see Note 5.
Arendal. This city is an important shipping center.
Sverre, see Note 5.
Note 30.
MRS. LOUISE BRUN. Louise Gulbrandsen was born in Bergen, December
16, 1831, and died in Christiania, January 21, 1866. In childhood
she knew the narrowness and darkness of poverty. Made her first
appearance as an actress at the opening performance of Ole Bull's
theater in Bergen, January 2, 1850, when she also recited the
Prologue. An attractive personality, a voice clear and flexible both
in speech and song, and unusual mentality made her the most talented
actress of her time in Norway. Her power was comprehensive; she
began with romantic parts and always liked these best, though later
she was distinguished in conversation-plays. In 1851 she married
Johannes Brun, Norway's most gifted comedian. They came to
Christiania in April, 1857. A picture drawn from life, etc., refers
to the romantic drama, The Sisters at Kinnekullen, of the Dane,
Carsten Hauch (1790-1872). It was his most frequently performed
play, dealing with the mysterious power of gold over the human mind,
as something demonic in the servitude it imposes. It had recently
been played with Mrs. Brun in the part of Ulrika.
He, who from fairy-tale, etc. Ole Bull, see Note 19. Thus is
introduced here a poetical history and eulogy of Ole Bull's
Norwegian Theater.
Note 31.
TO JOHAN DAHL, BOOKDEALER. Johan Fjeldsted Dahl was born in
Copenhagen, January 1, 1807, and died in Christiania, March 16,
1877. He came to Christiania in 1829, and established in 1832 a
business of his own, both publishing and selling. In the mercantile,
social, literary, and artistic life of the city he came to have an
important place and influence. Dahl had published Norway's Dawn, by
Welhaven, and in the time of the Wergeland-Welhaven conflict (see
Note 36, and as to Wergeland, Note 78) a violent personal quarrel
developed between Wergeland and Dahl about an entirely unimportant
matter. Dahl had provided his porter with a green livery having red
borders. Wergeland, who regarded Dahl as the leading representative
of the "Copenhagenism" (Danish, anti-Norwegian tendencies) he was
contending against, had an epigram printed, The Servant in Livery,
and insulted the porter on the street. This led to a slashing
newspaper feud between Wergeland and Dahl. After everybody's
feelings had grown calmer, Wergeland wrote about the burlesque
occurrence in a farce entitled The Parrot, and Dahl had humor
enough, himself to publish this satirical skit.
The light from his shop. Wergeland derisively styled Dahl's store
"the first slander-shop of the city;" it was, in face, the meeting-
place of the "party of intelligence," those interested in European
culture and esthetic criticism, i.e., it was the resort of those
opposed to Wergeland.
Note 32.
TO SCULPTOR BORCH. Christopher Borch (1817-1896) was a lifelong
friend, of whom in 1857 Björnson wrote in letter: "The most
childlike, natural man I know, with his even, light walk, and his
fine, small hands," and "there is poetry in that man. Oh, how you
have misunderstood him!" It was this friend who, about the same
time as these letters were written, helped Björnson open his spirit
to the influence of Grundtvig (see Note 57). Borch for many years
gave free instruction to convicts in the Akershus prison in drawing
and other subjects, and so helped them to a future when they came
out.
Note 33.
CHOICE. A Danish publisher issued a calendar with poems on the
months by different Scandinavian poets. When Björnson was invited to
contribute, all the other months were already written up or
assigned, and only April was left.
Note 34.
NORWEGIAN SEAMEN'S SONG.
Saint Olaf's Cross. Of the insignia of the Royal Norwegian Order of
St. Olaf, founded in 1847 by King Oskar I; the characteristic
feature is a white cross.
Hafursfjord's great day (see Note 5), near Stavanger.
Note 35.
HALFDAN KJERULF was born September 15, 1815, and died August 11,
1868. He early showed talent for music, and though he had to study
law from 1834 on, he yet studied and wrote music with a crushing
sense of lack of knowledge and opportunity. He was dangerously ill
in 1839, and always weak physically. His father died in 1840, and
Kjerulf then began to earn his living by music. A stipend received
in 1850 enabled him to go to Leipzig for a year. In 1851 he settled
in Christiania as a teacher of music, where for the rest of his life
his influence as a composer was most important. His compositions
are all of the lesser forms; his best work was done from 1860 to
1865. He was in general a pioneer of modern Norwegian music, and one
of the first to draw from the inexhaustible fountain of folk-music.
He wrote exquisite music for many songs of Welhaven, Wergeland, Moe,
Björnson, and others.
Note 36.
NORWEGIAN STUDENTS' GREETING TO PROFESSOR WELHAVEN. Johan Sebastian
Cammermeyer Welhaven was born December 22, 1807, lived from 1828 in
Christiania, was lector from 1840 to 1846, and from 1846 to 1868
professor of philosophy in the University; he died October 21, 1873.
His poetical works were: Norway's Dawn, 1834; Poems, 1839; New
Poems, 1845; Half a Hundred Poems, 1848; Pictures of Travel and
Poems, 1851; A Collection of Poems, 1860. A polemical writer, gifted
with wit and fine taste, and a social-political author, Welhaven
represented in his earlier period the "party of intelligence"" over
against the chauvinism of the radical Peasant party of Wergeland
(see Note 78). He was an adherent of Danish culture and of the
esthetic view of art and life, who hated all national exclusiveness
and showed a love of his country no less true and intense
than Wergeland's by chastising the Norwegians of his time for their
big, empty words and their crass materialism. For this he was
rewarded with abuse, and called "traitor to his country" and
"matricide." In reality Welhaven was a dreamer, a worshiper of
nature, a man of tender feeling. His subjective lyric poetry is not
surpassed in richness of content and beauty of form by that of any
other Norwegian. Outside of his ordinary University duties Welhaven
was also active; he was a favorite speaker at student festivities
and musical festivals, notably at the Student Meetings in Upsala,
1856, and in Copenhagen, 1862. But early in 1864 his health failed
and he was unable thereafter to lecture regularly. In August, 1868,
he requested to be retired; on September 24, the University
Authorities granted his request and a pension at the highest rate;
but the Storting, on November 12, reduced this to two-thirds of the
amount proposed. The same day the students brought to Professor
Welhaven their farewell greeting, marching with flags to his
residence, where this poem of homage was sung.
Note 37.
FORWARD. The composer Grieg and his wife spent Christmas Eve, 1868,
with Björnson's family in Christiania. Grieg, who then gave to
Björnson a copy of the first part of his Lyriske Smaastykker, has
written the following account of the origin of this poem: "Among
these was one with the title 'Fatherland's Song.' I played this for
Björnson, who liked it so well that he said he wanted to write words
for it. That made me glad, although afterwards I said to myself: It
probably will remain a want, he has other things to think of. But
the very next day I met him in full creative joy: 'It's going
excellently. It shall be a song for all the youth of Norway. But
there is something at the beginning that I haven't yet got hold of
- a certain wording. I feel that the melody demands it, and I
shall not give it up. It must come.' Then we parted. The next
forenoon, as I was giving a piano lesson to a young lady, I heard a
ring at the entry-door, as if the whole bell apparatus would rattle
down; then a noise as of wild hordes breaking in and a roar;
'Forward! Forward! Now I have it! Forward!' My pupil trembled like
an aspen leaf. My wife in the next room was frightened out of her
wits. But when the door flew open and Björnson stood there,
glad and shining like a sun, there was a general jubilee, and we
were the first to hear the beautiful new poem."
Note 38.
THE MEETING. The Student Meetings, i.e., conventions of university
students in the three countries, were originally an important part
of "Scandinavism" (see Note 21). The first was held in 1843; that of
1862 was the last to have a distinctly political character.
After 1864 the chief aim of these gatherings was to improve the
position and strengthen the influence of the student in the
community. In 1869 Christiania invited the Danish students to meet
there with their Swedish and Norwegian comrades, in the interest of
culture, better acquaintance with one another, people, and land, and
cooperation in general for the future of the kingdoms.
Gjallar-horn, Heimdall's horn, to be blown especially at the
beginning of Ragnarok, symbolical here of the painful passing of the
old order, which ushers in a new world.
Note 39.
NORSE NATURE. See note to the preceding poem.
King Halfdan the Black (died 860) was the father of Harald
Fairhair. It was said of him that he once dreamed he had the most
beautiful hair one could see, luxuriant locks of various lengths and
colors, but one of them larger, brighter, and fairer than all the
others. This was interpreted to mean that King Halfdan would have
many descendants, and they would rule Norway with great honor; but
one of them would surpass the others, and later this was said to be
Olaf the Saint.
Nore, the largest mountain of Ringerike.
Note 40.
I PASSED BY THE HOUSE. Written in 1869. The translator has not been
able to verify the statement that the poem refers to a cousin, to
whom Björnson was devoted from his student days.
Note 41.
THOSE WITH ME. This poem of tender homage to his wife (see Note 12)
and home was written during the summer of 1869, while Björnson was
on a lecture tour, which took him to northernmost Norway. His
fourth child, and first daughter, Bergliot, was born June 16, 1869,
in Christiania. When their golden wedding was celebrated in 1908,
Björnson said to his wife: "You knew me and knew how ungovernable I
was, but you loved me, and there was a holy joy in that. To you
always came back from much wildness and many wanderings. And with
all my heart I give you the honor. To you I wrote the poem: 'As on
I drive, in my heart joy dwells'. It was not poetical and not
sentimental, but just plain and direct. I wrote it to glorify my
home and you. And I believe that no more beautiful and deep poem in
praise of home has been written. For there is life's wisdom in it.
It is yours, Karoline, and your honor."
Note 42.
TO MY FATHER. Written in 1869. Peder Björnson was settled as a
pastor at Kvikne in Österdal at the time of the poet's birth.
Originally he was an independent farmer, like his father and
grandfather, on the large farm Skei on the Randsfjord, where he was
born in 1797. He completed his theological training in 1829, came
to Kvikne in 1831, to Nes in Romsdal in 1837, and to Sogne in 1852.
On retiring in 1869 he moved to Christiania, where he died, August
25, 1871. His large frame and great physical strength were
hereditary in his father's family. Our race. Allusion to the
tradition of the descent of the Björnsons from ancient kings through
the poet's great-grandmother, Marie Öistad.
The Norwegian peasant, see Note 78.
Note 43.
TO ERIKA LIE (-NISSEN) (1847-1903). One of the great pianists in
Norway, she was born in Kongsvinger on the river Glommen, where her
parents resided also when this poem was written in 1869. She gained
European fame by her concerts from 1866 on, married the physician
Oskar Nissen in 1874, and after 1876 resided in Norway. She was
distinguished for the poetic quality of her playing, for warmth and
fullness of tone, and for faultless technique.
Note 44.
AT MICHAEL SARS'S GRAVE. He was born in Bergen, August 30, 1805,
and died in Christiania, October 22, 1869. In 1823 he became a
student of the University in Christiania, where for a time he
devoted himself to natural science, continuing his boyhood's lively
interest. But the necessity for self-support turned him to
theology. In 1830 he was appointed pastor at Kinn in the Söndfjord,
married in 1831 a sister of Welhaven, and in 1839 was transferred to
Manger, near Bergen. Both the places mentioned were very convenient
for zoölogical study, which Sars resumed at once and continued
unbrokenly. His earliest published work appeared in 1829; it was of
first-rate importance, and his reputation was soon established
everywhere in the world of learning. In 1853 he sought retirement
from the Church, and in 1854 was professor of zoölogy in the
University, where he continued his remarkable researches until his
death. He was a pioneer in his special field, the lower marine
fauna, and his aim from the beginning was not merely to discover new
species, but to trace the physiological processes and the
development of these lower, minuter forms of life, - ovology,
embryology, organology. It was his work that led to the deep-sea
expeditions of The Challenger and other similar voyages.
Note 45.
TO JOHAN SVERDRUP. Written in November, 1869. Johan Sverdrup
(1816-1892) was the greatest political leader and statesman of
Norway in the nineteenth century, and left the deepest traces in all its recent history. He settled in Laurvik in 1844 as a lawyer, was
soon active in municipal politics, laboring for the interests of the
working-class, was elected to the Storting in 1851. Reëlected in
1854, and regularly thereafter till 1885, his authority in the
Storting and his power in public life steadily increased. From 1871
on he was President of the Storting, except in 1881 for reasons
of health; from 1884 to 1889 he was Prime Minister. A consistent
democrat, he created and led the party of the Left, or "Peasant-
Left," and contended all his active life for the establishment of
real government by the people, i.e., a constitutional democracy with
parliamentary rule. This, the fulfillment of his famous saying, "All
power ought to be gathered in this hall [i.e., in the Storting],"
was consummated in June, 1884. Few men in Norway have been so
bitterly assailed by political opponents, and few so idolized by
followers. He was a masterful orator, inferior only to Björnson.
Assassination. An allusion to Ibsen's The Young Men's Union, first
performed in Christiania on September 30, 1869. Björnson regarded
the drama as directed against himself and his political friends. In
1881 he wrote: "With the word assassination I did not mean that
conditions and well-known men were aimed at. What I meant was, that
The Young Men's Union tried to make our young liberal party into a
band of ambitious speculators, whose patriotism could be carried off
with their phraseology, and especially that prominent men were first
made recognizable, and that then false hearts and base characters
were fictitiously given them and spurious alliances pasted on them."
The words of Einar. For Einar Tambarskelve, see Note 11, and for
Magnus the Good, Note 6. Immediately after the death of Magnus
in Denmark, Harald proposed to make himself King over all Denmark,
but Einar arose and spoke, ending with the words: "It seems to me
better to follow King Magnus dead, than any other King living."
Nearly all the Norwegians joined Einar, and Harald was left with too
small a force to carry out his plan.
My childhood's faith unshaken stands. Björnson was at the time
With full conviction an orthodox Christian; Sverdrup was for himself
a free thinker in religion.
Brotherhood in all three lands. Sverdrup was always opposed to any
close federation of the three countries, and to Scandinavism, see
Note 21.
What ought just now to be. The whole political programme of the
Left, as it was gradually wrought out during the next two decades.
Sverre, see Note 5.
One nation only and one will, Sverdrup's ideal, as outlined
above.
That impelled the viking, see note on Harald Fairhair, Note 5.
At Hjörung, see Note 11.
Wesssel's sword, seeTordenskjold, Note 5.
Wesssel's pen. Johan Herman Wessel (1742-1785) was a grand-nephew
of Peder Wessel Tordenskjold. He was the leader and most popular
member of the "Norwegian Society" in Copenhagen, in spirit and style
the most Norwegian of the writers born in Norway in the eighteenth
century.
That in faith so high, etc., refers to the teaching of Grundtvig
(see Note 57), who looked upon the Edda-gods as representing a
religion originally akin to Christianity.
Brun. Johan Nordal Brun (1745-1816) became bishop in 1804. A
popular poet, he was the creator of the older national hymn and
other patriotic songs; an ardent lover of his country, opposed to
Danish influences in politics and culture; strictly orthodox and a
powerful orator.
Hauge. Hans Nilsen Hauge (1771-1824), a peasant lay-preacher, of
whom a biographer has said: "Since the Reformation no single man has
had so profound an influence on ecclesiastical and Christian life in
Norway." The "Haugian revival" of the emotional religious life is
proverbial. Its value was great in every way; directly and also by
his widely distributed writings it fostered intellectual
enlightenment. The peasant political movement started soon after
1830 among his followers. This explains Björnson's great sympathy
with Hauge and his school.
Modern bishop-synod's letter, the dogmatic literalism of the State
Church, seeking to impose itself on free popular religions faith.
Chambers, reference to proposals to revise the Act of Union with
Sweden, in particular to the plan of a Union-Parliament, all of
which were rejected by Norway.
Folk-high-school's, see Note 65.
Note 46.
OLE GABRIEL UELAND (born October 28, 1799; died January 9, 1870)
was the son of a farmer. He was self-taught, reading all the books
he could find in the region about his home; became a school teacher
in 1817. His marriage in 1827 brought to him the farm Ueland, whose
name he took. He early became foremost in his district, and from
1833 to 1869 was member of the Storting for Stavanger. He organized
and led the Peasant party. In his time one of Norway's most
remarkable men, the most talented peasant and most powerful member
of the Storting, belonging to the generation before Sverdrup, he
prepared the way for the latter, with whom he then coöperated.
Sverdrup once said: "All of us who are engaged in practical politics
are Ueland's pupils."
Note 47.
ANTON MARTIN SCHWEIGAARD, jurist and statesman, was born in
Kragerö, April 11, 1808, and died in Christiania, February 1, 1870.
After five years as lecturer in the University he was, in 1840, made
professor of law, political economy, and statistics. Regarded as the
most representative Norwegian of his age and its aspirations, he was
called by his countrymen "Norway's best son." Though interested in the reform of education and the introduction of European culture,
and hence favorable to Danish literature, standing with Welhaven and
against Wergeland, it was in economics that his influence was
greatest, and indeed greater than that of any other one man in all
Scandinavia. He was the soul of the organizing labor that
accompanied and conditioned Norway's surprisingly rapid material
advance in the decades before and after the middle of the nineteenth
century. A friend of Scandinavism, in politics a liberal
conservative, but never a party man, he was member of the Storting
for Christiania from 1842 to 1869. Schweigaard's personality
contributed most to the high esteem in which he was universally
held; his character was open and direct, actively unselfish, loftily
ideal. His wife died on January 28, 1870. On a walk the next day he
suddenly was seized with intense pains, had to go home and to bed,
and died on February 1. An autopsy showed that his heart had
ruptured. Their joint funeral was held on February 5.
Note 48.
TO AASMUND OLAFSEN VINJE. Vinje, the son of a poor cottager, was
born on a farm in Telemarken, April 6, 1818, and died July 30, 1870.
Poverty and his peculiar personality made life hard for him from
first to last. Bent on testing all things for himself, he came into
conflict with the authorities. He was discharged from a school in
Mandal in 1848 because of his scoffing criticism of a religious
schoolbook. He went then to Heltberg's School (see Note 50) in
Christiania, soon after became a student in the University, and
passed the state examination in law in 1856. But his life was
devoted to literary pursuits, and he was most gifted as a lyric
poet. In 1858 Vinje went over completely to the Landsmaal
(see Note 80), and in this form of dialect found his natural medium
of expression. In October of the same year he began his weekly
paper, Dölen, in which he treated all the current interests.
Although one of the most advanced thinkers and keenest combatants in
his country's spiritual conflicts, he stood very much alone, a great
skeptic and satirist, who practiced irony with the highest art.
Vinje had no home of his own until after his marriage on June 20,
1869. His wife died immediately after the birth of a son, on April
12, 1870. At her burial on April 16 Björnson was present, and
taking Vinje's hand ended an estrangement which had existed for some
years because of Vinje's unjustly harsh criticism of Björnson's
early peasant tales, and other rather personal attacks.
Guests, the angel of life and the angel of death.
You stand sick, with the incurable disease which caused his death
a few months later.
Great and wondrous visions, probably (cf. also the following
stanza) of the truth of the orthodox faith, which Björnson at the
time still firmly held.
Note 49.
GOOD CHEER. This poem stood last in the first edition, with the
title "Last Song." It is a vigorous, partly humorous, beautiful,
true self-characterization of Björnson's position in the life of
Christiania and Norway just prior to 1870, and a statement of his
ideals and models in the three Scandinavian countries, Grundtvig,
Runeberg, and Wergeland. From the beginning of 1865 to the middle
of 1867 he had been director of the Theater, and since March, 1866,
as editor no less than as author, active in polemics, political and
literary. His election early in December, 1869, as president of the
Students' Union, was a demonstration in his favor, shortly after
which this poem was written. Compare also the poem, Oh, When Will
You Stand Forth?, and note thereto.
The twelfth and thirteenth stanzas refer to Grundtvig, for whom see Note 57.
The fourteenth stanza refers to the Finnish Swedish poet, Johan Ludvig
Runeberg (1804-1877), whose lyric, ballad, and epic genius was of national
importance for Sweden. He was a champion of true freedom and naturalness
in literature and life.
Wergeland, see Note 78.
Note 50.
OLD HELTBERG. Henrik Anton Schjött Heltberg was born February 4,
1806, and died March 2, 1873. In early life he was an active member
of Wergeland's Party in the attack on Danish influence, and this
spirit ever controlled him, a "power-genius" of independent
originality, grotesque appearance, and odd manners. From 1838 he was
teacher in various schools, until in his later years he founded in
Christiania a Latin School, continued until after 1870, with a
course of two years formature pupils, whose ages ranged between
sixteen and thirty-five years, the so-called "Student Factory," a
higher cramming-school, chiefly preparing for entrance into the
University. It was, however, attended also by those who for other
reasons wished to learn Latin and Greek. He was a powerful teacher,
a uniquely rousing and educating force.
I went to a school, etc. When ten years old Björnson was sent to
Molde and entered the "Middel-og Real-skole" there, which had only
two classes and, when he left it, twenty-eight pupils. In 1850,
seventeen years old, he went to Christiania and the "Factory."
Prelims, those who had passed only an examination preliminary to
the "Norwegian" (not Latin) official examination.
Vinje, see Note 48.
Jonas Lie, born November 6, 1833; died July 5, 1908; the
noted author of novels and tales.
Grammar. Heltberg's method was a grammatical short-cut system, to
cram Latin and Greek in the shortest time possible. For twenty years
he talked about publishing it, and received a grant from the
Storting for this purpose. But it was always to be improved, and
nothing was published except a fragment after his death.
Note 51.
FOR THE WOUNDED. This song was written in 1871, and sung at bazaars
which were held in all the cities of Norway in order to raise funds
for sending nurses, bandages, and money to the French wounded.
Note 52.
LANDFALL. Written in 1872 for a musical festival in Trondhjem, the
profits of which were given to aid in the restoration of the
Cathedral there.
Olaf Trygvason, see Note 10.
Note 53.
TO HANS CHRISTIAN ANDERSEN. Although Hans Christian Andersen
(1805-1875) traveled frequently and far in the earlier years, he
made after 1863 only one journey out of Denmark. This was to
Norway, to receive the homage of the brother-nation. Björnson had
been quite intimate with him, both personally in Copenhagen and
especially in Rome, and by correspondence. Andersen's genius was
misjudged and condemned by the Danish critic Heiberg (see Note 7),
but his very lack of the then prevailing Danish qualities made
Björnson admire and sympathize with him.
A fairy-tale. Andersen's chief work, Tales told for Children,
appeared in 1835; his New Tales and Stories in 1858-61.
Note 54.
To STANG. Fredrik Stang (born March 4, 1808; died June 8, 1884) was
an active and successful lawyer from 1834 to 1845. In the latter
year he became Secretary of the then established Department of the
Interior, beginning a most meritorious career and opening a new era
in Norway's internal development. By him industry and trade were
made freer, the sea-fisheries and agriculture fostered, roads built,
the postal service was improved, the flrst telegraph line
and the first railroad were instituted. He retired because of
illness in 1854. But after the great minister-crisis of December,
1861, he presided over the Norwegian government until the summer of
1873, when, after the abolition of the viceroyship, he was made
Prime Minister and continued as such until 1880. He was a thorough
conservative, a member of the Right, and so opposed to the political
ideals cherished by Sverdrup (see Note 45) and Björnson.
For the opening lines compare the poem Toast for the Men of
Eidsvold, and notes thereto.
Note 55.
ON A WIFE's DEATH. In memory of Queen Louisa (1828-1871), consort of
King Karl XV of Sweden and Norway. A princess of the Netherlands,
whose mother was the sister of Emperor William I, she was married in
1850o, and died March 30, 1871. She bore a son on December 4, 1852,
who died March 13, 1854. In November, 1870, she was called to her
dying mother in The Hague. Karl XV died in September, 1872, after
several years of precarious health. Queen Louisa was an unassuming,
truly noble woman of deeply religious feeling and large benevolence.
Note 56.
AT THE BIER OF PRECENTOR A. REITAN. Anders Jörgensen Reitan, a
peasant, was born July 26, 1826, and died
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